Deciphering the Ranks of Poets in Amīr ʿAlīshīr Navāʾī’s Maḥbūb al-Qulūb

Amīr ʿAlīshīr Navāʾī’s Maḥbūb al-qulūb stands as one of his last contributions to Chaghatay Turkish prose. Crafted in 906/1501, the year marking his passing, the work is comprised of a prologue, three sections (qism), and a closing epilogue.

The initial section presents a vivid portrayal of forty distinct societal classes, ranging from the stature of Sultans to the humility of Dervishes. Navāʾī’s subsequent section takes a deeper dive into character virtues and vices, offering counsel on what to embrace and shun. The final section serves as a reservoir of assorted wisdoms and insights Navāʾī deemed invaluable for his readers.

Being a poet himself, with an oeuvre spanning both Chaghatay and Persian, Navāʾī possessed a unique perspective on poetry’s essence and the poets’ tiers. He divides them into four categories.

1. Emissaries of Divine Knowledge: Navāʾī held in the highest esteem those poets who could access divine knowledge repositories. These poets had the extraordinary gift of translating profound meanings into verse. Notably, he cites ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, an iconic figure in Islam, as the pioneer of this elite class. Among the Persian poets, only Shaykh Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār and Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī earned this distinction, their focus unwaveringly on revealing divine enigmas through their verses.

2. Those Mixing Metaphor with Meaning: This tier houses poets who weave intricate metaphoric images, infusing them with profound, divine revelations. Luminaries such as Saʿdī and Ḥāfiẓ of Shiraz, along with Amīr Khusraw of Delhi, exemplify this class.

3. Those More Inclined Toward Metaphor: These poets primarily wield metaphors, crafting a distinct poetic style. Thirteen poets, from Kamāl Iṣfahānī to Shāhī Sabzavārī, are spotlighted in this category.

4. Poets of the Form: Navāʾī's least favored class, these poets are captivated solely by the art form. Their verses lack depth or higher meaning. Navāʾī, although candid in his critique, abstains from naming any poets in this group.

In my scholarly pursuits, I have consistently gravitated towards poetry as a primary source for examining the intellectual history of Islamic societies, especially those that favored Persian as their medium of expression. For these particular communities, poetry served not merely as a literary endeavor but as a sophisticated platform for contemplation, the dissemination of profound insights, and the translation of complex knowledge into less argumentative forms of expression. In this regard, I find myself in alignment with Navāʾī’s perspective; that the depth of meaning—combined with metaphor—should be paramount in our critical assessment of poets, irrespective of their linguistic medium. To gain a better understanding of his stance on this matter, let us delve into Navāʾī’s views as presented in the following chapter.

Chapter Sixteenth

On The Mellifluous Birds in the Rose Garden of Poetry

And they appear in distinct groups:

The initial group is endowed with the riches of divine knowledge, rendering them needless of the praises bestowed by His creation. They are adept at gleaning jewels from the repositories of meaning, deftly integrating them into verse for the enrichment of their audience. Expressing meaning through poetry holds great nobility and delight to the highest degree. Thus it is present within the verses of the Quran, and should one delve into the meticulously organized hadith, they would discern them there as well. However, given that this [poetic essence] is not the primary intention, people refrain from designating the Quran and Hadith as 'poetry', considering such labeling impermissible.

In any event, the foremost and trailblazing luminary of this esteemed assembly, standing preeminent amongst this noble congregation, is the gem of the vast expanse of sainthood and the shining beacon atop the pinnacle of generosity: the Commander of the Believers, ʿAlī [b. Abī Ṭālib]—may God be pleased with him and glorify his countenance. His diwan of poetry remains preserved, and the mysteries and intricacies contained therein are innumerable. Indeed, this assembly draws inspiration from him, a figure manifesting a myriad of wonders. We are poised to present a selection of these illustrious figures shortly.

Among those who pen in Persian stands the assembler of mystical gems, Shaykh Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār. Additionally, there is the composer of the Masnavī-i Maʿnavī, the deep diver into the ocean of certitude, Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn, also known as Mawlāwī-i Rūmī. Their sole intention in crafting verse was to articulate the divine mysteries and convey the boundless expanse of His knowledge.

Furthermore, there are the perceptive saints, the esteemed Shaykhs, and the Devotees of the Divine. These individuals follow the latter group, deeming it meritorious to elucidate their words and expound upon their meanings. They stand as articulate advocates of the path of truth; to them belongs the art of alchemy and the possession of the Red Sulphur.

There exists another group that blends metaphor with the profound mysteries of truth, aligning them closely with the Word in which there is no doubt, namely, the Quran. Among them are notable figures such as Shaykh Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Saʿdī of Shiraz, who eloquently conveys nuances to those discerning meaning; Amīr Khusraw Dihlawī, who, within the cohort of lovers, has surrendered all with unparalleled purity; Shaykh Ẓahīr al-Dīn Sanāʾī, who adeptly unravels the intricacies of Sufism; Shaykh Awḥad al-Dīn [Kirmānī], a singular beacon among those grounded in certitude; and Khwājah Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Ḥāfiẓ, a masterful exponent of profound meanings.

There exists another group whose compositions predominantly embody the path of metaphor, and they exhibit a profound eagerness towards this literary style. Prominent among them are Kamāl Iṣfahānī, Khāqānī Sharwānī, Khājūy-i Kirmānī, Mawlānā Jalāl [ʿAḍud Yazdī], Khwājah Kamāl [Khujandī], Anwarī, Ẓahīr [Fāryābī], ʿAbd al-Wāsiʿ [Jabalī], Athīr [al-Dīn Akhsikatī], Salmān Sāwajī, Nāṣir Bukhārī, Kātibī Nishābūrī, and Shāhī Sabzawārī.  

Additionally, there exists a paragon who has achieved mastery in the paths of both meaning and metaphor. His proficiency in each path is all-encompassing. He is the venerated leader and imam of poetic expression, Shaykh al-Islām, the radiant pillar of Islamic polity and faith, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Jāmī–may God illuminate his resting place and sanctify his secret. He demonstrated eloquence when expressing the sentiments and manners of the initial group and exhibited mastery in delineating the subtleties of the latter. Connoisseurs of refined taste, as well as those in pursuit of spiritual ecstasy, find delight in his nuanced insights and derive pleasure from his vast knowledge.

There is yet another group, of noticeably lesser acclaim, who take pride and find their success largely in poetry itself. Even as they grapple with myriad challenges, they muster but seven lines—yet the echoes of their assertions seem to outreach the seven heavens. Their discourse, devoid of the sweetness of truth and divine wisdom, and their verses are bereft of the intimate warmth of love and passion. The allure of their poetic form is infrequent at best, and their whispered tales of love and sorrow rarely ignite the soul. Regrettably, on the rare occasions when they manage to pen a line of substance, it is quickly obscured by their countless, unfounded declarations. As if, when one manages to touch upon a nuanced meaning, he promptly veils it with tenfold ill-conceived pronouncements. It is as though they find consensus only within their own echo chamber, and paradoxically, the less meaning their words hold, the grander their claims become. We earnestly seek refuge in God from the follies of our own nature and from our untamed behaviors.